Kambojas

Kambojas are very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They are known to belong to ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in greater Panjab and as Kams/Kamoz and Katirs/Kamtoz of Siyaposh tribe, in the Nuristan province of Afghanistan. Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and currently, the total population still known by their ancient name(s) is estimated to be about 1.5 million.

Origin & language

Buddhist Jatakas, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Herodotus (Book I.140) and Avestic texts indicate that ancient Kamboja was the center of Iranian civilization. This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of ancient Kambojas, that is, the people of Kamboja, as well as from the Avestic dialect they spoke.

It is now widely accepted among the scholars that the Kambojas formed Avestan speaking group of the East Iranians and were located mainly in north-eastern parts of Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan. Scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion had originated in East Iran in the land of the Kambojas.

Noted authorities like Dr Christian Lassen, Dr E. Kuhn, Dr S. Levi, Dr M. Witzel and numerous others have traced the ethnic name Kamboja in the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (Cambyses of Greeks). Kambujiya was the name of several great Persian kings of Achaemenid line. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyran, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elemite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language.

Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he had wrought upon this country.

Original Home

In ancient literature and inscriptions, the Kambojas are frequently listed with the Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, and Sakas etc, which tribes are known to belong to Uttarapatha.

The Epics, Puranas and other Sanskrit literature specifically state the Kambojas as a tribe located in Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e northern division.

Yasaka's Nirukuta (II/2) attests that verb 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' was used by the Kambojas and only the Kambojas.

It has been proved that the modern Galcha dialects viz. Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the head waters of Oxus still have the continuants of the ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense 'to go'. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around head-waters of Zerafshan in Sogdiana also still contains relic from ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense to go. Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha which is stated to have been replaced by Persian in the last few centuries only (Linguistic Survey of India, X, p 456)

The linguistic evidence combined with numerous literary and inscriptional evidence has led many noted scholars to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the 'Galcha' speaking area of Central Asia.

Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably had comprised Pamirs, Badakshan and possibly parts of Tajikstan including Yognobe region in the doab of Oxus of Central Asia. Roughly on East, it was bounded by Yarkand and/or Kashgar , on West by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on North-West by Sogdiana, on North by Uttarakuru, on South-East by Darada and on the South by Gandhara.

Later, some sections of the Kambojas had crossed Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajori.

This view is fully supported from Mahabharata (2/27/23-25) which specifically draws our attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as neighbors to the Rshikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana.

The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography which references a geographical term 'Tambyzoi' located on river Oxus in Badakshan and an 'Ambautai' people living on southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae. Scholars have identified Ptolemian Tambyzoi and Ambautai with Sanskrit Kamboja.

Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae which further strengthens the view that Kambojas did move to southern side of Hindukush.

With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are attested to have both Indian as well as Iranian affinities.

Still later, some sections of the Kambojas had moved further to Arachosia which fact is attested from the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar.

Some scholars have identified original Kamboja with Arachosia, which view does not seem to be correct.

Kshatriya Caste

In India, the Kambojas seem to have belonged to the Kshatriya caste of the Indo-Aryan Society.

The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas is Panini's fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada and mentions it as one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas (Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175).

The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were formerly Kshatriyas. It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas and other allied tribes from their Kshatiyahood (Harivamsa 14/19) and forbidden them to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Harivamsa, 14/17).

Harivamsa also calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriya-pungava i.e foremost among the Kshatriyas.

Manusmriti attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally noble Kshatriyas but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites and of their not consulting the Brahmanas (X/43-44).

The Mahabharata also specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally noble Kshatriyas but later got degraded to barbaric status due to their neglect of the Brahmanas (MBH 13/33/31-32).

Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) attests Kshatriya Shrenis (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras and some other nations and notes them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare.

The legend of Daivi Khadaga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata (12/166/1-81) also powerfully endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas. The sword, as a symbol of Kshatriyahood was awarded to the warrior king Kamboja by Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, the celebrated king of Kosala, from whom it passed on to a Yavana king Muchukunda (MBH 12/166/77-78).

Bhagavatam Purana (2.7.35) references a king of Kambojas and calls him as powerfully armed mighty warrior (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja).

Kalika Purana (20/40) refers to a war between Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga) where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as (Kambojai...bhimavikramaih) i.e the Kambojas of terrific military prowess, which again endorses the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas.

There are more such-like references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature which further document the Kshatriyahood of the Kambojas.

Master Horsemen

The horses of the Kambojas were famous through out all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, Ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canons and numerous other ancient sources all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed.

In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the 'birth place of horses' (Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... Samangalavilasini, I, p 124).

Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa states the Kamboja as the 'base of horses' (10/28).

Jaina Uttaradhyana-Sutra (11/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it.

Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) lists best horses from various lands, but puts the steeds from the Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically marks them the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam).

In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service ( Dr B. C. Law).

Ramayana (1/6/22), Kautiliya's Arthashastra (2/30/32-34), Brahmanda Purana (II,2.16.16), Somes'ara's Manasollasa (4.4.715-30), Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p 415), Raguvamsa (4/70) and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar(19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses and state them the finest breed.

Vishnuvardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore had the Kamboja horses and he had made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses.

These references amply demonstrate that the Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior in the battle field.

No doubt, the Kamboja steeds had been the prized possession of the kings and the warriors in ancient times.

It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas i.e. horsemen. Their clans in Kunar/Swat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings and Ashvakayanas and Asvayanas in the Ashtadhyayi.

Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah i.e expert cavalrymen (MBH 12/105/5).

Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry, and states it as extremely fast and fleet (Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih...MBH 7/7/14).

The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that the Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars.

Therefore, it is no exaggeration that the ancient Kambojas were horse lords and masters of horsemanship as Mahabharata rightly styles them.

Kambojas in Indian Texts

The Kambojas find reference in numerous Sanskrit and Pali literature including Samveda, Atharvaveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, Kautiliya's Arthashastra, Yasaka's Nirukuta, Buddhist Jatakas, Jaina Canons, ancient grammar books and plays etc.

Mahabharata Traditions

Shantiparva of Mahabharata refers to a Kamboja king who was awarded the prized sword by Dhundhumara aka Kuvalashava, the celebrated king of Ayodhya (MBH 12/166/77). It was probably from this Kamboja that his country/tribe came to be called Kamboja (Puranic Encyclopaedia, Vettam Mani).

Adiparva refers to a powerful king of Kambojas called Chandravarma and descibes him as an incarnation of Asura Chandra, foremost among the sons of Diti and handsome as the lord of the stars himself (MBH 1/67/31-32) .

Sabhaparva refers to another king of Kambojas called Kamatha Kamboja who has been counted among principal Kshatriyas invited by king Yudhishtra on the inauguration ceremony of the imperial palace at Indraprastha (MBH 2/4/22)

Sabhaparva informs us that a king of the Kambojas had taken part in the Rajasuya sacrifice of king Yudhishtra (MBH 2/532/3).

Sudakshina, the illustrious monarch of Kambojas had participated in the Swayamvara of princess Draupadi of Panchala country (MBH 1/185/13).

Epic War and the Kambojas

Among the Kshatriya tribes in the great Epic, the Kambojas occupy a very prominent place. They were allies of Duryodhana and by their bravery, and especially the prowess of their king Sudakshina, they had rendered great service to Kuru side in the long drawn battle at Kurukshetra (Dr Law).

Sudakshina had joined Bharata war leading a grand army of wrathful warriors of Kambojas, Sakas and the Yavanas. The mass of his one Akshauhini army is stated to look like a swarm of locusts (MBH 5/19/21-22).

Sudakshina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes on the field (Dr Law). Mahbharata numerously refers to Sudakshina as a great Maharathi (Sudakshinan tu rajendra Kambojanam maharatham), lionlike (Purushavyaghrah), a volcano giving out flames (Kamboja.vadava.mukham), a lion among the chariot-warriors (ratha.simhasya) and a Mahabali/Mahabahu undefeatable even by the gods in the battle (MBH 7/158/64-66) etc.

Sudakshina had fought very ferociously until slain by Arjuna on 15th day of the war. He roared like a lion (sinha.nadamathanadat) as he fought and had given Arjuna indeed a tough fight. In the final and deadly duel brave Sudakshina had seriously wounded Arjuna and sent him into a terrible swoon, but finally was overcome and fell a magnificent martyr to Kuru cause (MBH 7/92/61-76).

Younger brother of Sudakshina had also participated in the Bharata war and had fought ferocious duels on Kurus' side. This tall and extremely handsome prince was also finally slain while fighting valiantly with Arjuna on 17th day of the war (MBH 8/56/111-114).

The Mahabharata repeatedly applauds the mighty and immense army of the Kambojas, calling it a flooded river, invincible in the battle. There are numerous references to countless Maharathas or great heroes of the Kambojas (MBH 7/113/61). The Kamboja warriors have been described as 'strikers of fierce force' (tigmavega.praharinam).

In hot war-field, the Kambojas have been described as elephants gone berserk (durvarana nama Kamboja); war-intoxicated warriors, biting the lips in rage as they fought (damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah); Death-personified (samana.mrityavo); deadly like cobras (tikshnai.rashivishopamah), and terrible like Yama the god of death and rich like Kuber the god of wealth (Yama vaishravan.opamah) etc.

Dronaparva of Mahabharata terms the entire Kamboj soldiery as fiercely brave, scholars of Vedas (kritavidyashcha), firmly devoted to the science of weapons, highly united, self-sacrificing and well-wishers of each other (7/112/43-44).

Puranic Literature

Puranic literature groups the Kambojas with the Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to a social custom prevalent among them which was against that of the Hindus.

The Hindus by religion were ordained to support a sikha or knot on head and therefore, looked askance towards those who had their hair cropped short (mundah).

Puranas say that with the help of ayudhajivi sanghas of above-said tribes known as five hordes (pañca.gana), the Haihaya and Talajangha Indo-Aryans had dethroned Vedic King Bahu of Ayodhya. However, a generation later, Bahu's son Sagara had recaptured Ayodhya after completely destroying Haihayas and Talajanghas. Sagara was about to crush the five hordes when Sagara's priest Vasistha intervened. Vasistha advised Sagara to let the hordes go after meting them out a lighter punishment. Listening to his Spirtual Guide, Sagara forbade these invaders to perform Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras (Vedic rituals), thus divesting them of their Kshatriyahood. Sagara also forced the Kambojas and Yavanas to shave whole of their heads, Sakas to shave half, Pahlavas to grow beards and the Paradas to wear their hair free (Harivamsa 14.1-19)

The story apparently has been tuned to explain certain peculiarities of these foreigners by suggesting that their peculiar hair styles were due to their defeat at the hands of Sagara.

Prevalence of short hair style among the Kambojas is also attested from Mahabharata (7/119/23) as well as from Ganapatha on Panini's rule II.1.72 (Kamboja-mundah, Yavana-mundah).

Kautiliya's Arthashastra

Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests that the Kambojas followed republican constitution.

Kautiliya contrasts Varta.shastr.opajivin (martial republican) Sanghas with the Raja.shabad.opajivin (king-council) Sanghas and includes the Kamboja and Surastra Kshatriyas in the 'Varta-shastr.opajivin' or 'martial republics' category.

Kamboja.Surastra.ksatriya.shreny.aadayo 'vaartta.shastra.upajiivinah'.

— (Arthashastra 11/1/4)

i.e Corporations of warriors (Kshatriya shrenis) of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agriculture, trade and by wielding weapons (Dr R Shamasastry).

Kautiliya also attests that the Shrenis or corporations of the 'Shastr-opajivins' (i.e the Kambojas and Surastras etc) were the most heroic and best source for military recruitment (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28).

The martial republics mentioned in Kautiliya Arthashastra are headed by Kambojas (Dr Jayswal).

The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is also testified by Mahabharata which refers to several brave Ganas or Republics of the Kambojas (Kambojana cha ye Ganah....sangrame shura sammatah) fighting on Kurus' side.

Thirteenth Rock Edict of king Ashoka also affirms that the Kambojas, Yavanas etc were republican or kingless nations (araja.visyavasi yonakambojesu..) within the Mauryan empire.

Buddhist Literature

The Anguttara Nikaya refers to Kamboja as one of the sixteen great nations of ancient times (Anguttara Nikaya, I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261).

The same fact is also conveyed by one of the oldest Pali commentary, the Chullaniddesa.

The Majjhima Nikaya attests that in the lands of Yavanas, Kambojas and some other frontier nations, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves. The Arya could become Dasa and vice versa:

Yona-Kambojaseu annesu cha panchchantimesu janapadesu dvea vanna,

ayyo ceva daaso ca ayyo hutva daaso hoti daaso hutva ayyo hoti ti.

— (Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3)

The Commentary [Majjhima Commentary, II, p.784] informs that a Brahmin would go to Kamboja or Yavana with his wife for purpose of trade and would die there, his wife would then be compelled to work for her living and her children might consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves.

This attests that in the lands of Kambojas and Yavanas (yonakambojesu), there was no place for Brahmanas.

Ashoka's R. E. XIII also attests Yona and Kamboja as a pair (Yonakambojesu), and conveys similar information on Yonas (directly) and the Kambojas (indirectly) stating that Brahmanas and Shramanas are found every where in his empire except in the lands of Yonas etc:

nathi cha se janpade yata nathe eme nikayia anataa yonesu bahmane cha shamne.

— (R.E XIII).

The Vishnu Purana also affirms the absence of chatur-varna system among the Kiratas in the east and the Yavanas, Kambojas etc in the pashchima or west (Vishnu Purana, 2/37).

Kamboja.sutta of Anguttara Nikaya states that, in spite of their desire, Kamboja is not to be visited by women of other countries (Anguttara Nikaya, II. p82).

The Commentary (Manorathapurani, Anguttara Commentary, II, p 523) also supports this fact.

This implies that there was, perhaps a shortage of women in Kamboja, and it was probably unsafe for women from other countries to visit Kamboja.

Bhuridatta Jataka refers to the Kambojas as following the non-Aryan (i.e Zoroastrian) customs like killing poisonous insects, moths, snakes and worms--which is recognized as Zoroastrian from passages in Mazdean books like the Vedevat (XIV.5-6) and from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140).

Valmiki Ramayana

In Adi-Kanda of the Ramayana (1/55/2-3), one reads that the Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas and some other allied tribes of north-west were 'created' at the request of sage Vasistha by the Divine cow Shavala to defend sage Vasistha from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law).

This poetical 'creation' of the Kambojas etc may point to some remote attempt on the part of some Brahmana rishi of Vasistha line to proselytize Iranian Kambojas and other allied clans of the north-west into brahmanised Kshatriyas of the Indo-Aryan version.

These Hinduised Kambojas later became ardent champions of Vedic religion and the great scholars of the Vedas. Kamboja Aupamanyava was a distinguished scholar/grammarian and finds a place in the line of great ancient Vedic teachers of Vamsa Brahmana (1/18-19) of Sama Veda. Being a Kamboja and son of Upamanyu, this Kamboja sage was referred to as Kamboja Aupamanyava.

Dr Ludwig, Zimmer, Pusalkar, Law etc identify sage Upamanyu of Rig Veda (1.102.09) with the father of Kamboja Aupamanyava.

The Hinduised Kambojas are found listed at par with the Vasisthas in Paraskar Grihyam Sutram according to which the Kambojas and Vasisthas had common custom to wear one choti on right side of the head.

dakshinatah Kambojaanaam Vasisthaanaam,

ubhayato Atri Kashyapaanaam mundah Bhriguh,

panchachuda Angris.Bajasneyaanaameka manglarth shikhinoanyai/

— (Chudakarma Samskaara, Paraskara GrhyaSutram 2.1.23, Commentary: Pt Harihar)

This shows that the social and religious customs of the Brahmanised Kambojas and the Indo-Aryan Vasisthas were identical but differed from other scholarly clans of ancient India.

The Bahu/Sagara Puranic legend also testifies very intimate relationship of the Kambojas with the Vasistha clan.

There are several references in Sanskrit and Pali literature which inform us of the scholarship of Kambojas.

The Mahabharta (7/112/43-44) reveals that, besides being fierce warriors, the Kamboja soldiers were also noted as learned people (kritavidyashcha).

The Vasistha clan appears to have played a leading role in proselytising the Persian Kambojas, especially the cis-Hindukush Kambojas living in Kabol/Swat and Rajori region, into Hinduism.

There are further indications that Kaundanya line of Brahminas, an offshoot from Vasisthas, also had good relations with the Kambojas, especially those Kambojas who had settled in western and southern India after Christian era.

The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

As the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as a cavalry-men (ashvaka), the Ashvakas i.e. horsemen was also the term popularly applied to them. These Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan and were included in the general term Kambojas (Dr K. P. Jayswal; Dr. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukherjee; Dr Singh, Dr L.M. Joshi etc).

French scholars like Dr E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas (Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte).

The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: " The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid Empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana " (Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash)

These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboj clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayan Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring 'a glorious death to a life of dishonor' (Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270).

The Ashvakas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander

The Ashvayans (Kambojas) were also a good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture (History of Panjab, I, p 226).

According to one line of scholars, name Afghan has evidently been derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian. (C. Lassen, J. W. McCrindle, Saan Martin, Phillip Smith etc).

The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain works Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalyan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Mudrarakshas, II).

With the help of these frontier martial tribes from the north-west, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great as well as the Nanda rulers of Magadha and succeeded in founding the Maurya Empire in northern India.

The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. The Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'araja vishaya' in Rock Edict XIII which shows that they were kingless i.e Republican units. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors.

King Ashoka had sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism and has recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V.

Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka had sent thera Mahárakkhita to Yona and Majjhantika to Kasmíra and Gandhára to preach Dharma among Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas.

Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p 49)

Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys.

See also: Edicts of Ashoka

Migration into India and Beyond

Other references to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-European tribe with both Persian and Indic affinities from their homeland in the Afghanistan-Turkistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia.

During second/first century BCE, in their advance from their original home in Central Asia, one stream of the Kambojas, allied with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded to Sindhu, Sovira and Surastra; while the other stream allied with Yavanas appears to have moved to Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.

There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the Mlechcha kings of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlika, Abhira etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 23/187/28-30).

According to Dr H. C. Ray Chaudhury, this is too clear a statement to be ignored.

This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, alludes to a historical situation (second/first century BCE downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India.

The invading hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas,Pahlavas, Abhiras etc from the north-west had entered Punjab, United Province, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/principalities in the land of the Indo-Aryans.

This chaotic situation of Aryan India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BCE) and the establishment of the Vikram era (See: Brhatakatha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra; cf: Kathasritsagara 18/1/76-78)

The Kambojas in Mathura

Sufficient evidence exists that around Christian era, Yavanas, Kambojas and the Sakas had occupied the heartland of India, i.e. the modern state of Uttar Pradesh

Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana refers to the invasion of Panchaala, Mathura, Saketa and Pataliputra by the Yavanas (Ref: Brhatsamhita, Bibilotheca Indica, 1965, Intro., pp 37-38, Kern; Greeks in Bacteria and India, 1951, W. W. Taran, Apprendix)

Though the Kambojas are not specifically mentioned in this passage, it goes without saying that the term Yavanas in Yuga-Purana defintely included the Kambojas and probably also the Sakas.

It is notable that after massive intrusion of India by Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas around Christian era, the term Yavana had also become synonymous with Mlechcha and was a common designation for all foreign tribes irrespective of whether they were Yavanas, Sakas, Kambojas or others (See: Hellinsm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Williams-Monier Sanskrit-English Dictionary).

Passages exist in the Mahabharata, Vayu Purana (I/58/81-83, II/37/106-09) and Matasya Purana (144/51-58) which include the Kambojas among the Yavanas and designate both as Yavanas.

There is another reason for this too. The culture of the Kambojas had been substantively altered due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both people are attested to follow common culture, social customs and mannerism like supporting short cropped hair, non-entertainment of Brahmanas and observing two varna (Arya and Dasa) social system instead of chatur-varna observed by the Indo-Aryans etc.

The Yonakambojesu expression in Ashoka's R.E XIII as well as in the Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3) powerfully attest very close relations of the Kambojas with the Yavanas.

Thus, it is not unusual that the Kambojas have sometimes been indiscriminately included among the Yavanas and addressed as such, in the later Sanskrit literature.

According to Dr Buddha Parkash: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Satrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura " (India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee).

Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal).

The following verse from Mahabharata composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests the Kambojas and Yavanas in control of Mathura.

tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./

ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah.//5

— (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)

The Mathura Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshthi characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaostas Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuiá, the chief queen of the Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars.

According to Dr Konow's findings, Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi Kamuiá who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a Kamuia.

By rigorous linguistic analysis, Dr Konow has also established that name Kamuia/Kamuio of Lion Capitol Inscriptions is the Khroshthised form of Sanskrit Kamboja, Kambojaka, or Kambuja (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum II, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi and p 36, Dr S. Konow)

Thus, there is both literary as well as inscriptional evidence which amply attests the presence of ancient Kambojas in Mathura.

King Maues: a Kamboj king

Further, the scholars have also identified Yuvaraja Kharaostas of the Lion Capitol inscriptions with Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been examined by Rapson and Luders. Kshatrapa Kharaostas (Khroshtha) was son of Arta as is clear from his coins i.e Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putras. Arta (or Orta) is stated to be brother of king Moga (or Maues).

Thus, according to Dr Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Arta, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Khroshtha) Kamuio, and queen Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the Kamuiá or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja clan.

However, some scholars insist that Moga was of Saka extractions, but there is no conclusive evidence to link Moga to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas simply based on his Maues, Muki or Mevake names which are said to be variants of Scythian name 'Mauekes' (Dr Raychaudhary). This is not a very convincing reasoning to identify him as of Saka extractions.

As is well known, during few centuries preceding the Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas.. such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc (Dr D. C. Sircar, Dr J. L. Kamboj). This extensive social and cultural admixing due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among these frontier people of north-west.

Thus, the identification based merely on so-called Saka-sounding names is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain surname Kamuia used after the names of king Moga's family members? Is Kamuia also attested as a clan name among the ancient Sakas/Scythians anywhere? The answer is no.

As a matter-of-fact, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family.

Scholars like Dr V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king (The early History of India, p 242). Others say that he was Saka king. Latest, Dr S. Konow and many scholars following him say that he was Kamboja king.

According to Dr Thomas, the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capitol exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature. This tells us that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharoshtha Kamuia were from the Persian denominations hence more likely from Kamboja ethnicity.

Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities (Dr Thomas).

Thus, the ethnic surnames Kamuia/Kamuio used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas in Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions should give enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or Kamboja/Kambuja clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become some what Scythianised in social customs, culture and mannerism due to extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which followed Scythian culture. Under such a scenario, it is absolutely not unusual for the Kamboja family of king Moga to have borne names which may sound somewhat Scythian or mixture of Scythian and Parthian.

Probably, this is the clue to king Moga's ethnic identity.

Therefore, King Maues or Moga and his family were from Kamboja rather than Scythian lineage.

There are some European scholars who consider the Kambojas to be a clan of the Sakas. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But originally, the Kambojas were Aryan not Scythian, in culture.

The Kambojas in West/Southwest India

Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira (6th century AD) locates one Kamboja settlement specifically in the South-west (nairrtyam dizi) of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida. e.g.

nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah/

hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah/

— (Brhat Samhita 14/17-19).

Markendya Purana also locates a Kamboja settlement in the south-west India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (Surashtra) countries (Markandya Purana, 55/30-33).

Arthashastra of Barhaspatya (Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22) refers to Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) locating it adjacent to Dasrana country, south-east of Gujarat (Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127).

Vishnu Dharmottari (I.9.6) also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India (Geog. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206)

Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India. e.g.

sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha:

— (Raajbilaas 1/122).

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) e.g.

pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah:

carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah:

— (Garuda Purana 1/15/13).

Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in Indian mainland.... Kambhoja in south-west India and Kamboja in southern parts of India (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305).

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India.

The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c AD).

Due to the above literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat. Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.

Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity (Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah)

Interestingly, Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is very popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventuours king of Kambojas. It probably relates to some historical brush the Andhraites might have had with the intruding hordes of Kambojas/Pahlavas around Christian era.

The Kamboja hordes of second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western india. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh ( Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick) remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The Kamboi (ancient town/port), Kambhey (port) in Surashtra, Kumbhoj/Kambhoj (an ancient town) in Kohlapur in Maharashtra, and the Koimb-toor city of Caranatica in southern India carry unmistakeable footprints of the Kambojas. There is a Kambhoj caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra which probably is a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas who had settled in SW India around Christian era.

Kambojas in Bengal

A third branch of these Central Asian Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-ji/Kam-po-ce) and Nepal (Kambojadesa). Fifth century CE Brahma Purana (53/16) mentions Kambojas with Pragjyotisas and Tamraliptikas. Sasanavmsa (P.T.S., pp 64-65, 83 etc) also attests the Kambojas in/around Burma. They were probably a section of those Kambojas who figure in history of Bengal. They had made an unsuccessful bid to conquer Gauda during the reign of king Devapala. A latter attempt of Kambojas was crowned with success and they deprived the Palas of the suzerainty over Gauda and set up one of their chiefs as king (History of India, p 399, Dr V. A. Smith)

Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Gaudapati, also known as Kunjarghatavarshayan, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-west Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-west Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 (Edited/published by Dr N. G. Majumdar, 1934).

Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who is described as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family (Indian Antiquary, I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227 ff; Journal of Royal Society of Bengal, II, 1911, pp 615-19).

In the inscription, this Kamboja king is addressed as Kunjarghataversheyan, which may be his nick-name.

Irda-Tamrapatra inscription details generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala (Epi. Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-58)

Jaganathaparkasha composed by Pandit Sura Misra in honor of Jagana Natha born in Kamboja family (Kamboja.kulavatansah.shri.Jagananatha iti prasidhah) refers to him as a famous king ruling in Bengal in 16th century (Notices of Sanskrit MSS, V, no 1790).

Kambojas in Sri Lanka

Inscriptional and Literary Evidence

One section of north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Surastra, several centuries prior to Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social, cultural and economical lives of its people. This is evident from six or seven ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which strongly attest the existence of Kamboja Goshatha/Sangha (Gote Kabojhiana...Archaological Survey of Ceylon, Inscription Register No 316) and the Grand Kamboja Guild (Kabojiya mahapughyana.....op. cit. Inscription Register No 1118) in ancient Sinhala.

These inscriptions are said to belong to third century BCE (Dr S. Paranavitana).

The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century, also attests a group of people called the Kambojas in Rohana. The third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, reveals that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni.

Sasanvamsa attests one Bhiksu Tamalinda thera, son of Kamboja, living in ancient Sinhala. It also attests a Kamboja king Srihamsyia, who came from Kamboja and took possession of Ratanapura in south-west Sinhala (Sasanavamsa, (P.T.S), p 40, 100; Some Kshatriya Tribes, p 249/50, Dr Law).

The second most referenced ethnic group following the Aryan Kambojas in the ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura are the (Dravidian) Damedas or Tamils. Term Dameda occurs in four inscriptions. Term Mileka (Mlechcha) referring to the Aborigines of the island i.e the Veddas, occurs twice. Other three terms Muridi (=Murinda?), Meraya (Maurya?) and Jhavaka each occurs only once.

It is noteworthy that there is no reference whatsoever, to name Sinhala in any of these ancient inscriptions. The first ever reference to Sinhala is noted in 4th century Dipavamsa. This proves that the Sinhala identity for the majority Sinhlese speaking Aryan population had evolved much later, down the road.

The above inscriptional and literary evidence shows that the Kamboja colonists from north-west had formed an important and pre-dominant section of ancient Sinhala society, perhaps from several centuries prior to Christian era. Therefore, they must have been the first Aryan colonists to have reached the island.

The Sinhapura of Ancient Sinhalese

Mahavamsa traditions reveal that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan population, had migrated from some Simhapura country located in India proper (Mahavamsa, 6/34).

Mahabharata attests one Sinhapura principality located in north-west of India. This Sinhapura figures prominently in Arjuna's Digvijay of north-west countries. It is stated to be located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara, in Kashmir).

After the Sinhapura, the Epic makes reference to Bahlikas (Panjab? or Bacteria?), Daradas and Kambojas, thus showing that the Sinhapura of Mahabharata was located in the north-west adjacent to Kambojas and Daradas of Upper Indus (See: MBH 2/27/18-22) .

Chetiya Jataka also locates one Simhapura in the west (Jataka III, p 275).

Hiuen Tsiang, seventh century Chinese visitor also attests one Simhapura (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on east bank of river Indus about 115 miles east of Taxila, which localizes it in upper doab of Jhelum/Chenab (Ref: Hiuen Tsiang, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I. Trans. Samuel Beal, 1906, pp 142-150)

Scholars have located this Sinhapura in upper Salt Range, north-west of Panjab (Struggle of Empire, p 33, Classical Age, p 132).

Sinhala, as a personal name is also attested from two Kharoshthi inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Taksashila in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Insc., pp 87, 110, Dr. Konow).

The appellative terms Gamika (=Gamini=Gramini) and Parumaka (=Pramukha) and the corporational terms Puga (=Guild/Sangha) and Gote (=Goshati=corporation) etc have been used specifically in reference to Kambojas in the ancient inscriptions of Sinhala. As attested by Kautiliya's Arthashastra, these republican/corporational terms were applied to political, military and commercial Sanghas or Guilds of the Kambojas of Uttarapatha around 4th c BCE. Thus, this evidence suggests that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the ancestors of the ancient Sinhalas may have been from the Kambojan/Gandharan trade group.

The 'shaved-headed tradition' about Vijay and his companions has been referred to in the Mahavamsa. This also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group.

Archeological Finds

The most famous and only known locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times was in Badakshan in north Afghanistan which has been mined for over 6000 years. The Badakshan province undoubtedly formed a part of ancient Kamboja as we have already proved above. Archeological finds of lapis lazuli (of Badakshan type) from Sri Lanka conclusively connect it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli.

Numerous coins, beads and the intaglios belonging to Bacteria/ Afghanistan have also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Apart from lapis lazuli, coins and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Kamboja/Gandhara/Bacteria region are further revealed by other articles of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schist, (yet unpublished), was unearthed from the excavations at Jetavanarama in Anuradhapura.

All these archeological finds conclusively establish a very close relationship between Sri Lanka and the north-west communities, especially, the Kambojans/Gandharans of Afghanistan/Central Asia.

A Merchant Lineage

In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a Sarthavaha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are traveling in a caravan.

It is likely that Vijay Simha, the ancestor of the Sinhalese was the earliest one such Sarthavaha from the Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BC, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west following ancient Kamboja-Dvarka Caravan Route and then via the west-coast sea-route starting from Bharukachcha in Gujarat.

The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboja had an allurement for these specific products.

It is also significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses (Vinaya Pitaka, III, 6; Játaka, Vol II, 287, Fausboll). Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboja were in active trade as far as Ceylone. This trade had been going on with eastern, western and southern India as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850) of Bengal and King Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106 - 1152) of Mysore had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry.

Dr Don Martino observes: The traders from north-west Kamboja had been conducting trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west coast of India since remote antiquity (Epigraphia Zeylanka, Vol II, No 13, p 76).

More evidence exists which point to closer links of north-west Kambojas/Gandharas with the ancient Sinhalese.

Kambojas in Indo-China

Some ambitious Kamboja families from Gujarat/Surashtra or those from Sinhala appear to have ventured into Indo-China around third or fourth century CE, originally as merchants/traders, later followed by some Kshatriya Kamboja chieftain. They managed to found a small Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under the Varman kings. If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in eighteenth century in India, the Kamboja adventurers from Gujarat/Surastra or Sri Lanka could have done it in fifth century in nearby Indo-China too. The Kambojas as traders and as ethnic community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archeological evidence presented above. With one little step forward, they were in Indo-China. The ruling family of Varman kings of Cambodia proudly trace their lineage to the Kambujas or Kambojas. King Kambu (Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of Kambuja (Kamboja) ruling family of Cambodia was, to all probability, a warrior/scholar Kamboja chieftain from Sinhala or else from Gujarat. The tradition among north-Indian Kambojas lends adequate credibility to this view.

Several noted scholars like Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, Dr R. K. Mukerjee, Bombay Gezetteer, Dr J. L. Kamboj and several others have accepted a direct historical and political link between the Indian Kambojas and Kambodia. G. Coedes, an authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection (Indianized States of South-East Asia, 1964, p 47).

One school of scholars including Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Joveau Dubreuil, Dr V. Venkayya, Dr B. L. Rice, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi/Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas. The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both the Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era (Ref: Brhat Samhita (14/17)) may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambuja dynasty of Cambodia respectively.

Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

Kamboj/Kamboh diaspora

The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains.

The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas.

The Kamboj are also found in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Ganganagar in Rajasthan. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is living in Maharashtra which probably has descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era.

Kamboj/Kamboh traditions

The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Persia (Denzil Ibbetson, H. A. Rose, S. S. Gill, Chaudhri Wahhab Ud-Din).

The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Panjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradtion that their ancestors came from Kashmir.

Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan. The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from Garh-Gazni (Afghanistan). Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the phera during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home:

Garh Gazni Nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas.

Translation:

Originated from the fort of Gazni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (Panjab).

Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Panjab (H. A. Rose, A. H. Bingley, H. M. Elliot, Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, etc).

Kamboj/Kamboh during Muslim Rule

Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan was the most trusted general of Akbar. Sheikh Gadai was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign (Akbar Nama, Abu-L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122).

The Sayyids and the Kambohs from among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule (The composition of the Mughal nobility, Encyclopedia Britannica Online; The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali).

The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position (H. A. Rose; D. Ibbetson).

Kamboj/Kamboh as Agriculturists

The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra (11/1/04) and Brhat Samhita (5/35).

Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India.

Britsh colonial writers like Rose and Denzil note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jats (Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6, 442, H. A. Rose).

Col Lal Singh Kamboj, landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India.

The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists (Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004, Principal Sewa Singh).

According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Agri. Univ. Ludhiana, Panjab), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity (Out of Ashes, p 60).

Physical Charactersitics of Kamboj/Kamboh

Several foreign observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race (Bingley, Rose) .

Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs to be ethnically more akin to the Afghans than any of the Hindu races among which they have now settled for generations [The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57).

There is a medieval era Persian proverb current in north-west which conveys that the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues .

Agar kuht-ul-riajl uftad, azeshan uns kam geeri,

Eke Afghan, doum Kamboh, seum badzat Kashmiri'.

— (Persian proverb)

This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris had been living pretty much as neighbors and were one inter-related racial group.

'During reign of terror in India (18th/19th centurry), it was the Kambohs (Kamboj) only who were most trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs' (Quoted in: Glossary of Tribes, p 444; Panjab Castes, p 149; cf: Census Report of India, 1880).

The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting.

They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war (The Sikhs and the Wars: Reginald Holder: (From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Ed Dr Ganda Singh))

The modern Kamboj are generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, generally very fair (gaura varna) race having brown, some times redish hair, and brown or sometimes gray eye color and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are noted for their beauty.

In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as very handsome race (MBH 7/23/43). Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall (MBH 8/56/113), exceedingly handsome (MBH, 7/92/74, 8/56/113), of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like full moon (MBH 8/56/113), lotus eyed (MBH 8/56/113), handsome like the lord-moon among the stars (MBH 1/67/31). Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas as 'ravisanibha' i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun (Ramayana 1/55/2).

Ancient Kamboja ladies were also noted for their beauty (Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; MBH 11/25/1-8)

Kamboj in Sports

The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, hockey, and Kabaddi. Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan, Maula Bakhsh etc are the few foremost Panjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling. Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithi was the first Indian to win the Arjuna Award, and later Padam Shri Award in hockey. Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan. A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India. Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi.

General

The total population of this people, still calling themselves as Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million, rest of their population, over the time, having submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the subcontinent.

The Kambohs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line section is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata war.

Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.(cf: Glossary, II, p 444, fn. iii).

The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue( Jat Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary , II, p 444)

See also: Kambojas, 175 BCE, 231 BCE, 250 BCE, 272 BCE, Achaemenid, Achaemenid dynasty, Afghan, Afghanistan